Authorities Cited: Supreme Court 371 U.S. 178, 182 462 U.S. 213, 230 477 U.S. 242, 252 544 U.S. 336, 341-342 547 U.S. 71, 81 Circuit Courts 881 F.2d 1570, 1573 84 F.3d 393, 396-397 170 F.3d 1350, 1353 181 F.3d 1275, 1279 187 F.3d 1271, 1284 198 F.3d 815, 822 216 F.3d 300, 313-314 256 F.3d 1194, 1202 256 F.3d 1219, 1227 291 F.3d 336, 353-354 299 F.3d 735, 747 311 F.3d 11, 21 340 F.3d 1083, 1101-1102 365 F.3d 353, 366 372 F.3d 137, 151 374 F.3d 1015, 1016 394 F.3d 126, 147 411 F.3d 1006, 1015-1016 434 F.3d 579, 583-584 438 F.3d 256, 278-279 466 F.3d 1255, 1261-1267 477 F.3d 162, 174 494 F.3d 956, 972 512 F.3d 46, 56 513 F.3d 702, 708-712 521 F.3d 686, 695 526 F.3d 715, 721 531 F.3d 190, 195-196 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Fed. R. Civ. P. 8(a)(2) Fed. R. Civ. P. 9(b) Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(a)(2) Fed. R. Civ. P. 56