Authorities Cited: United States Code 15 U.S.C. § 1 28 U.S.C. § 1291 28 U.S.C. § 2072 28 U.S.C. § 2072(b) 29 U.S.C. § 141 42 U.S.C. § 1981 Supreme Court 324 U.S. 229, 265 355 U.S. 41, 45-47 392 U.S. 83, 99-101 411 U.S. 792, 802 414 U.S. 538, 552-553 422 U.S. 405, 414 424 U.S. 747, 755-756 431 U.S. 324, 336-361 450 U.S. 248, 252-253 457 U.S. 147, 156-161 461 U.S. 95, 106 467 U.S. 867, 876-877 468 U.S. 737, 751 504 U.S. 555, 560-561 517 U.S. 544, 557 520 U.S. 154, 167 527 U.S. 1031, 1119 532 U.S. 268, 273 534 U.S. 506, 511 536 U.S. 101, 122 Circuit Courts 701 F.2d 1365, 1368 745 F.2d 1373, 1376 760 F.2d 1520, 1543-1544 784 F.2d 1546 921 F.2d 1465, 1518 963 F.2d 1481, 1483-1484 977 F.2d 527, 533 988 F.2d 1564, 1571 58 F.3d 1554, 1567 77 F.3d 364, 366-367 79 F.3d 1079, 1082-1083 88 F.3d 902, 905 114 F.3d 162 117 F.3d 1258, 1263 132 F.3d 1359, 1368 141 F.3d 1453, 1454-1457 158 F.3d 742, 760-761 160 F.3d 1322, 1326-1327 162 F.3d 1290, 1333 163 F.3d 706, 711 202 F.3d 1303 211 F.3d 1228, 1238 256 F.3d 1095, 1109 256 F.3d 1282 261 F.3d 1075, 1128-1134 286 F.3d 1270, 1275-1276 305 F.3d 1280, 1282 305 F.3d 1293, 1296 327 F.3d 1181, 1183 365 F.3d 1284, 1288 368 F.3d 40 368 F.3d 1320, 1330 370 F.3d 565, 575 390 F.3d 695 408 F.3d 763, 768-769 446 F.3d 1153, 1156 453 F.3d 1309, 1316 470 F.3d 1350, 1354 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Fed. R. Civ. P. 8(a)(2) Fed. R. Civ. P. 8(b)(1) Fed. R. Civ. P. 10(b) Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(c) Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(e) Fed. R. Civ. P. 15(a) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(a) Fed. R. Civ. P. 23(b)(2) Fed. R. Civ. P. 54(b) Fed. R. Civ. P. 56 Fed. R. Civ. P. 59(e)